Where would the aurochs drink? Herds, springs and the Stonehenge car-park posts

What we know

Blick Mead, east of Stonehenge, is a chalk spring where Mesolithic people hunted aurochs and came back for a very long time (see Buried Landscapes of the Avon). On the ridge to the west are the big Mesolithic posts found under the old car park. Five radiocarbon dates on their pine charcoal span about 8820–6590 cal BC (Allen & Bayliss 1995, in Bronk Ramsey & Bayliss). Nearby runs the palisade ditch, which is poorly dated. It is put in the Late Neolithic on archaeological grounds, perhaps 2900–2400 BC, and the only date is from an Iron Age burial cut into it, 780–410 cal BC (Lawson 1997; Bronk Ramsey & Bayliss). The posts and the palisade are something like 4,000 to 6,000 years apart. I have suggested that the posts held machans, raised hunting platforms like those E. P. Stebbing drew in India. I have also wondered whether a palisade with gaps worked like a bull-run fence. Both ideas need herds to pass by.

So where would herds actually walk to water? On the chalk, the answer depends on winter. The climate of the period was much like today's, and the Avon gets frosty in a cold spell but doesn't freeze solid (see Britain, 5000–2000 BC: no ice, no catastrophe, a familiar climate). A spring, meanwhile, stays open. So the model below gives open springs an advantage in frost: a herd will walk 0.5, 1 or 2 km further to reach one.

How cattle walk

The rules come from studies of domestic cattle, not aurochs, but they are the best measurements there are.

• Climbing is costly. On a treadmill, cattle used about 26 J per kg for each metre climbed, against 2 J per kg per metre on the flat (Ribeiro et al. 1977). So a metre of climb costs as much as about 13 metres on the level.
• Going down costs too. Steers walking down a 6% grade used about as much energy as walking up it (Di Marco & Aello 1998).
• Steep ground is avoided. Cattle start avoiding slopes of 20% (Ganskopp & Vavra 1987). Land over 60% is treated as ungrazable (Holechek 1988), and the model treats it as impassable.
• Distance from water matters. The rangeland rule of thumb is full use up to 1.6 km from water and half use from 1.6 to 3.2 km (Holechek 1988). GPS-collared cattle often go further than that (Millward et al. 2020).
• Trails find the easy line. Real cattle trails from water were 11% shorter than GIS least-effort paths. They ran on slopes of 5.2% across pastures that averaged 13.5% (Ganskopp et al. 2000).

The model puts these rules on Environment Agency LiDAR at 5 m resolution. It starts 2,145 herds on the high ground, one every 250 m wherever the ground is at least 25 m above a river. Each herd takes the cheapest route to water. The water is the Avon, the Till, Blick Mead, and five springs marked on the 1880s OS six-inch maps: four at Winterbourne Stoke and one at Durrington. Where many routes share a line, that is a busy track.

Results

The posts are not on a track. In every run, no busy route (one used by 25 or more herds) reaches them. In the hardest frost the closest busy route comes within 615–730 m of the posts when Blick Mead is the only spring (Figure 1). With the OS springs added (Figure 2), the closest is about 1.3 km away (1.28–1.39 km).

They sit on the edge of Blick Mead's winter catchment. With no advantage for springs, the ground around the posts drains to the lower Avon. Give the springs the smallest advantage tested, 0.5 km, and the same ground switches to Blick Mead. It stays with Blick Mead at every frost setting, with or without the other springs. The posts look more like a watch point over herds drifting towards the spring in winter than an ambush on a path.

Figure 1. Cattle walking rules in a hard frost (open springs worth a 2 km detour; Blick Mead the only spring). Purple marks the ground whose herds drink at Blick Mead: 463 of 2,145 herds, from 37.7 km². The busy routes converge on the spring but pass the posts at a distance.

Blick Mead is not the only draw. In the hardest frost tested, with all six springs, Blick Mead takes 328 herds from 27.9 km², the most for any single spring. The Winterbourne Stoke springs take 268, 261, 52 and 34, so 615 between them, and Durrington takes 182. In milder frost a Winterbourne Stoke spring beats Blick Mead: 142 herds to 90 at 0.5 km, and 185 to 128 at 1 km. Blick Mead is the busiest spring only at the hardest setting. Even so, the posts stay in its catchment.

Figure 2. The same hard frost with the five springs from the 1880s OS six-inch maps added (green dots; red marks herds going to those springs). The Winterbourne Stoke group takes much of the Till side, but the posts remain in Blick Mead's catchment (purple).

The palisade is not a funnel. Few routes come near it. Making it a solid barrier changes almost nothing: in any run, at most one of the 2,145 routes changes its water. If it steered animals, it was in a drive, which this model cannot test.

Limits

This is a simple exploratory model, not proof. There are no GPS tracks to test it against. The rules come from cattle, and bison, the nearest wild comparison, avoid slopes more strongly and are less tied to water (Allred et al. 2011). The rivers are today's, from OpenStreetMap. The springs are Victorian map labels placed to within ±40–60 m. The posts and the palisade are thousands of years apart, so the model puts them on one landscape only for comparison. Some settings are my own choices, such as the steepness penalty reaching ×10 at a 60% slope.

GPS tracks of cattle grazing chalk downland for conservation would be the real test.

References

• Allred, B.W., Fuhlendorf, S.D. & Hamilton, R.G. (2011). The role of herbivores in Great Plains conservation: comparative ecology of bison and cattle. Ecosphere 2(3): art26. https://doi.org/10.1890/ES10-00152.1
• Bronk Ramsey, C. & Bayliss, A. Dating Stonehenge. CAA conference proceedings, ch. 5 (reporting Allen, M.J. & Bayliss, A. 1995, Appendix 2: the radiocarbon dating programme, in Cleal, Walker & Montague 1995, Stonehenge in its Landscape, pp. 511–35). https://proceedings.caaconference.org/files/1996/05_Ramsey_Bayliss_CAA_1996.pdf
• Di Marco, O.N. & Aello, M.S. (1998). Energy cost of cattle walking on the level and on a gradient. Journal of Range Management 51: 9–13. https://doi.org/10.2307/4003556
• Ganskopp, D., Cruz, R. & Johnson, D.E. (2000). Least-effort pathways?: a GIS analysis of livestock trails in rugged terrain. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 68: 179–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00101-5
• Ganskopp, D. & Vavra, M. (1987). Slope use by cattle, feral horses, deer, and bighorn sheep. Northwest Science 61: 74–81. https://hdl.handle.net/2376/1753
• Holechek, J.L. (1988). An approach for setting the stocking rate. Rangelands 10(1): 10–14. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/640265
• Lawson, A.J. (1997). The structural history of Stonehenge. Proceedings of the British Academy 92: 15–37. https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/documents/3913/92p015.pdf
• Millward, M.F., Bailey, D.W., Cibils, A.F. & Holechek, J.L. (2020). A GPS-based evaluation of factors commonly used to adjust cattle stocking rates on both extensive and mountainous rangelands. Rangelands 42: 63–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rala.2020.04.001
• Ribeiro, J.M.deC.R., Brockway, J.M. & Webster, A.J.F. (1977). A note on the energy cost of walking in cattle. Animal Production 25: 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003356100039118

Data: EA LiDAR Composite DTM 1 m © Environment Agency (OGL v3). Palisade ditch (HE_UID 219850) and Avenue from Historic England Aerial Investigation & Mapping, © Historic England (OGL v3). Rivers and the Blick Mead point © OpenStreetMap contributors (ODbL). Springs from the OS six-inch maps, reproduced with the permission of the National Library of Scotland, and GB1900 (CC BY-SA). Car-park post positions after Vatcher & Vatcher 1973 and Allen 1995 (HE Monument 219856).

Metal Followed People?

Between about 2450 and 2000 BC, roughly 90 per cent of Britain's ancestry was replaced by incoming groups associated with Beaker material culture, whose closest genetic relatives lived in the Lower Rhine region (Olalde et al. 2018). A new lead isotope and trace-element study of 201 copper-alloy objects from the Netherlands and Flanders (Merkel et al. 2026) samples metalwork from that source region. It therefore gives an indirect view of what was crossing the North Sea during the turnover.

Reconstruction of metalwork flows for the different phases (a–d). The routes suggested include the use of the major river systems (Rhine, Weser, Elbe, Oder and their tributaries) (maps: S. W. Merkel). From Merkel et al. 2026, Fig 19, CC BY 4.0. Base map © Esri. Sources: Esri, TomTom, Garmin, USGS, FAO, NOAA. Map image is the intellectual property of Esri and is used herein under license. Copyright © 2026 Esri and its licensors. All rights reserved. Reprinted under CC BY license with permission from Esri (static maps terms).

Copper before the incomers

Copper circulated on the near continent long before it appears in Britain. The earliest Dutch object analysed, a flat axe from Glanerbrug typologically dated to 4000–2500 BC, is attributed to Serbian copper. A double axe from Escharen (2500–2000 BC) is attributed to Slovakian ore. Neolithic Britain was not isolated: Alpine jadeitite axes were crossing the Channel in the fourth millennium. Yet no securely dated copper is known in Britain before Beaker-associated burials. On present evidence, copper did not reach the island's Neolithic population as a trade good before the incomers arrived.

People from the Rhine, metal from the Atlantic

The Dutch data show two copper streams converging in the late third millennium. The Wageningen hoard, tentatively dated to 2200–2000 BC, is mostly Únětice-type fahlore copper from Central Europe. Its halberd and dagger, however, are Iberian arsenical bronze, and the halberd blade is fixed with Central European rivets. A further seven arsenic-rich axes and daggers of 2000–1800 BC, several of British, Irish or Armorican type, are tentatively assigned to Argaric copper from south-east Iberia. That comparison does not consider Ross Island in Co. Kerry, the principal Beaker-period copper source in Ireland.

Britain shows the same decoupling. Its migrants came mainly from Rhine-delta populations, but its earliest copper arrived by Atlantic routes. Most came from Ross Island, and a few highly radiogenic objects from Britain's earliest metal-using phase probably derive from the Asturian mines of northern Spain.

Trade with whom?

Lead isotopes trace metal, not people. They cannot show whether copper in Britain during the turnover circulated only among incomers or also reached surviving Neolithic communities. The test lies in combining grave context with ancient DNA. Copper in the burials of individuals of predominantly Neolithic ancestry would indicate exchange across the population divide. No such cross-tabulation has been published. The nearest case is burial 25004 in the Boscombe Bowmen grave at Boscombe Down (24th century BC), which has the highest British Neolithic ancestry of any Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age individual sampled; one parent was probably wholly of Neolithic descent (Booth et al. 2021). The grave held seven or eight Beakers, flint arrowheads, a boar's tusk and a bone toggle, but no metal. Beaker material culture therefore crossed the ancestry divide within the first generations, but whether metal did as well remains untested.

The return flow

British metal reached the continent only after the post-turnover population had developed its own mines. British copper becomes prominent in the Netherlands after 1800 BC, when Great Orme copper dominates the supply. Examples include the British-type Acton Park palstaves from the Voorhout hoard and a Wessex II Camerton-Snowshill dagger, probably of Great Orme metal, from a barrow at Annertol. The export trade belongs to the incomers' descendants, centuries after the replacement.

Sources
Merkel SW, Arnoldussen S, Theunissen L, et al. 2026. Tracking Europe-wide copper and bronze flow in the Dutch Late Neolithic to the Early Iron Age. PLOS One 21(9): e0348751. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0348751
Booth TJ, et al. 2021. Tales from the supplementary information: ancestry change in Chalcolithic–Early Bronze Age Britain was gradual with varied kinship organization. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 31(3): 379–400. doi:10.1017/S0959774321000019
Olalde I, Brace S, Allentoft ME, et al. 2018. The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe. Nature 555: 190–196. doi:10.1038/nature25738

Stonehenge in Six Questions

Kipling kept "six honest serving-men": What and Why and When, and How and Where and Who. Put to Stonehenge, five of them have answers backed by evidence. This page is the companion to the short film Stonehenge in six questions, with the sources behind each card.

Where

On Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, about two miles (3.3 km) west of Amesbury and eight miles north of Salisbury, in a landscape dense with Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments, above all round barrows. Durrington Walls, about two miles to the north-east, is a far larger henge; houses excavated there may have sheltered the people who built Stonehenge (Parker Pearson et al. 2007).

Still from the Stonehenge Landscape Flyover.

(Click Photos to embiggen)

What

A circular bank and ditch, the earliest part of the monument. Inside it, a ring of sarsen uprights capped by a continuous circle of lintels; within that, a horseshoe of five trilithons; and among them the smaller bluestones, set as a circle and an inner horseshoe. Stonehenge gave its name to the class of monuments called henges, yet fails the definition: its main bank lies inside its ditch, not outside (see Is Stonehenge a henge?).

Plan from the Stonehenge 3D model, bluestones in blue. T. Daw, after Rees 1989.

When

The bank and ditch were built about 3000 BC. The sarsens and bluestones were set up in the centre about 2500 BC; the bluestones were rearranged two or three centuries later; and the Y and Z holes around the circle are dated between 1800 and 1500 BC (English Heritage; Darvill et al. 2012 set out five stages).

How

Fifty of the fifty-two surviving sarsens share a geochemical signature with West Woods, about 25 km to the north; typical uprights weigh around 20 tonnes (Nash et al. 2020). The bluestones come from the Preseli Hills in west Wales, some 220 km away in a straight line. The Altar Stone is a sandstone from much further north: Clarke et al. (2024) point to the Orcadian Basin of north-east Scotland. On the evidence so far that is a search area rather than a source outcrop (see The Altar Stone Zircons, One Sample at a Time). How the stones were moved is still debated; the distances here are straight lines, not routes.

Sarsens from West Woods (25 km), bluestones from the Preseli Hills (220 km). Lines are not routes.

Who

The builders were farmers whose ancestors had crossed from the continent around 4000 BC; ancient genomes show that Britain's Neolithic transition "was mediated by incoming continental farmers, with little gene flow from local hunter-gatherers" (Brace et al. 2019). About 64 cremations have been found at Stonehenge, and perhaps as many as 150 people were originally buried there (English Heritage). Isotopes in pig bones from Durrington Walls suggest animals were brought from across Britain for feasts, though the authors note that "it is not possible to define origins with confidence" (Madgwick et al. 2019). From about 2450 BC newcomers associated with Beaker pottery arrived, and within a few centuries about 90 per cent of Britain's gene pool had been replaced (Olalde et al. 2018).

Reconstructed Neolithic house, Stonehenge visitor centre. Alan Hunt, geograph.org.uk/p/4520192, CC BY-SA 2.0.

Why

Unknown. The one fixed clue is the axis: from the centre, the midsummer sun rises just to the left of the Heel Stone, and the midwinter sun would originally have set between the uprights of the tallest trilithon; the final straight stretch of the Avenue follows the same north-east to south-west line (English Heritage). Proposed purposes include a temple to the sun, a monument to the ancestors (Parker Pearson & Ramilisonina 1998) and a place of healing (Darvill 2006). The evidence does not yet choose between them.

Notes on the film

• Dates are rounded from radiocarbon ranges.
• Bluestone positions on the plan are taken from the stone-number points on the Rees 1989 sheet (via the georeferenced plan); they mark positions, not shapes.
• The maps use the NOAA GLOBE land mask. Lines join a source to Stonehenge; they are not routes.
• Music: original.

Sources

• Brace, S. et al. 2019. Ancient genomes indicate population replacement in Early Neolithic Britain. Nature Ecology & Evolution 3: 765–771.
• Clarke, A. J. I. et al. 2024. A Scottish provenance for the Altar Stone of Stonehenge. Nature 632: 570–575.
• Cleal, R. M. J., Walker, K. E. & Montague, R. 1995. Stonehenge in its Landscape: Twentieth-Century Excavations. London: English Heritage.
• Darvill, T. 2006. Stonehenge: The Biography of a Landscape. Stroud: Tempus.
• Darvill, T., Marshall, P., Parker Pearson, M. & Wainwright, G. 2012. Stonehenge remodelled. Antiquity 86: 1021–1040.
• English Heritage. History of Stonehenge; Understanding Stonehenge. english-heritage.org.uk
• Kipling, R. 1902. The Elephant's Child. In Just So Stories. London: Macmillan.
• Madgwick, R. et al. 2019. Multi-isotope analysis reveals that feasts in the Stonehenge environs and across Wessex drew people and animals from throughout Britain. Science Advances 5: eaau6078.
• Nash, D. J. et al. 2020. Origins of the sarsen megaliths at Stonehenge. Science Advances 6: eabc0133.
• Olalde, I. et al. 2018. The Beaker phenomenon and the genomic transformation of northwest Europe. Nature 555: 190–196.
• Parker Pearson, M. et al. 2007. The age of Stonehenge. Antiquity 81: 617–639.
• Parker Pearson, M. & Ramilisonina 1998. Stonehenge for the ancestors: the stones pass on the message. Antiquity 72: 308–326.

The Dorset Cursus and the midwinter sun: a LiDAR test

This post is the companion to the short film Ten kilometres for one sunset?, which tests a fifty-year-old astronomical claim about the Dorset Cursus against modern LiDAR. The method, numbers and caveats follow.

Fly the cursus yourself: Dorset Cursus 3D LiDAR flyover.

The monument

The Dorset Cursus is a pair of parallel banks with outer ditches running for just over 6¼ miles, nearly 10 km, across Cranborne Chase, from Thickthorn Down in the south-west to Martin Down in the north-east (RCHME 1975; Dorset HER MDO5608). It was built in two parts. The first, the Gussage cursus, ran from Thickthorn to a terminal on Bottlebush Down; the second, the Pentridge cursus, continued it on a slightly different alignment to Martin Down. Measured along the published points, the two are 5.65 km and 4.33 km long. Radiocarbon dates span the second half of the fourth millennium BC (Bowden et al. 1983; Barrett, Bradley & Green 1991). For most of its length it survives only as a cropmark or soilmark; the ends at Thickthorn and Martin Down remain as earthworks.

Long barrows lie beside it, inside it and in its banks. On Gussage Hill one lies across the interior, at right angles to the banks: a mound 155 ft long, 65 ft across and up to 10 ft high (RCHME 1975; Dorset HER MDO5615).

The Dorset Cursus on EA 1 m LiDAR, from the south-east. Height ×1.5.

The claim

Penny and Wood (1973) proposed that an observer at the Bottlebush terminal of the Gussage cursus would see the midwinter sun set behind the Gussage Hill long barrow. Barrett, Bradley and Green (1991) accepted this as the most plausible of Penny and Wood's alignments. It has since become the standard astronomical reading of the monument.

The test

The Environment Agency's LIDAR Composite DTM at 1 m (2022) covers the whole cursus. The observer is placed 30 m inside the Bottlebush terminal (RCHME SU 01581566) on the line of the Gussage cursus, at E401558 N115639, with the eye 1.6 m above the ground. The barrow mound is located directly in the DTM: its summit stands 3.1 m above its surroundings, and the part higher than 0.6 m is 43 m long on a bearing of 143°, matching the RCHME description.

From the observer the barrow is 2.89 km away on a bearing of 231.2°; the mound spans 230.8° to 231.7°. Sight lines are traced across the DTM out to 8 km with the curvature of the earth and terrestrial refraction (coefficient 0.13) included.

Section along the sight line from the Bottlebush terminal. The barrow is the skyline; the ground beyond stays below the line. Height exaggerated as marked.

The barrow is the skyline. On bearings from 224° to 238° the horizon is the Gussage Hill ridge, 2.83 to 2.95 km away, and the mound lifts it from about 0.24° to 0.29° above level. Nothing further away shows above it.

The sun. In 3300 BC the obliquity of the ecliptic was 24.05° (Laskar 1986), so the midwinter sun's declination was −24.05°. At latitude 50.93° N, with standard refraction at the horizon's altitude, the last gleam of the sun, its upper limb touching the skyline, goes down on a bearing of 230.60°. Moving the date to 3500 BC or 3000 BC shifts this by less than 0.05°.

The skyline from the middle of the Bottlebush terminal at true angular scale, with the midwinter sun of 3300 BC at three moments of its setting. The last gleam goes down just south of the mound.

From the middle of the terminal it just misses. The last gleam goes down 0.20° south of the mound's south-west end, about 10 m at the distance of the barrow. The sun's disc is 0.53° across, so the miss is less than half its width.

From the north-west half it works. Moving across the cursus changes the barrow's bearing by about 0.02° for every metre. From anywhere between 10 m and 55 m north-west of the axis, which is the north-west half of the terminal, the last of the midwinter sun goes down behind the mound.

The Bottlebush terminal on LiDAR local relief. Gold: the last gleam goes down behind the barrow. Blue: it goes down just beside it. Banks as traced on the flyover.

What could move it

• Refraction. Near the horizon in winter it varies from night to night; a change of 30% moves the last gleam by about 0.27°, more than the miss from the middle of the terminal.
• The terminal. The Gussage terminal bank on Bottlebush is ploughed. Its position comes from an eight-figure RCHME grid reference, and the axis there from the line between published points, not from surviving banks. Either can shift the zone by several metres.
• The barrow. The DTM records the mound as it is now, ploughed and eroded. A taller mound would widen the zone, not narrow it.
• Trees. Neolithic woodland on Gussage Hill, if any, is unknown and not modelled.

Conclusion

The 1973 claim survives a test its authors could not run. The Gussage Hill long barrow is the skyline from the Bottlebush terminal, and the midwinter sun of the late fourth millennium BC sets behind it when seen from the north-west half of the terminal, and just beside it from the south-east half. Whether the builders intended this cannot be settled from the ground.

How the line is drawn. No complete survey plan of the cursus is published. The banks on the flyover run between the published positions of the terminals and of points along the line (Historic England 1002785; RCHME long barrow 14, SU 011152, SU 01581566, SU 025169, SU 04051920), moved onto the ridges where the LiDAR still shows them, and left on the straight line between points across ploughed gaps. The code for the test is in the film's folder on GitHub (align.py, sens.py, diagrams.py).

References

• Atkinson, R. J. C. 1955. The Dorset Cursus. Antiquity 29, 4–9.
• Barrett, J., Bradley, R. & Green, M. 1991. Landscape, Monuments and Society: the prehistory of Cranborne Chase. Cambridge University Press.
• Bowden, M., Bradley, R., Gaffney, V. & Mepham, L. 1983. The date of the Dorset Cursus. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 49, 376–379. doi:10.1017/S0079497X00008069
• Dorset Historic Environment Record: MDO5608 The Dorset Cursus; MDO5615 Long barrow on Gussage Hill.
• Historic England list entry 1002785, Western end of Dorset Cursus.
• Laskar, J. 1986. Secular terms of classical planetary theories using the results of general theory. Astronomy and Astrophysics 157, 59–70.
• Loveday, R. 2019. Neolithic cursus monuments. Prehistoric Society, Neolithic factsheet 8.
• Penny, A. & Wood, J. E. 1973. The Dorset Cursus complex: a Neolithic astronomical observatory? Archaeological Journal 130, 44–76.
• RCHME 1975. An Inventory of Historical Monuments in the County of Dorset, Volume V: East Dorset. HMSO.

LiDAR: Environment Agency LIDAR Composite DTM 1 m, 2022. © Environment Agency copyright and/or database right 2022. Open Government Licence v3.0. Flyover, diagrams and analysis: T. Daw. Music in the film: original.

Eighty metres up: North Devon's erratics and the ice route to Stonehenge

This post is the companion to the short film Eighty metres up. In under three minutes the film sets out why the erratic boulders of North Devon matter to the claim that ice carried the Stonehenge bluestones to Salisbury Plain, and what they actually show. The full argument, with sources, follows.

The claim

Glacial transport of the bluestones needs Irish Sea ice that was not merely present in the Bristol Channel but standing high on the land, high enough to override the coast and carry on towards Wiltshire. The case for that has leaned on erratics. One abstract puts it this way: "of the scores of known glacial erratics on the shores of the Bristol Channel, many are found at altitudes in excess of 100m" (John 2024, ResearchGate abstract to his Quaternary Newsletter 162 article; the sentence does not appear in the article itself, as set out in The myth of Bristol Channel high-level glacial erratics).

South of the Channel, North Devon is where such evidence would have to be found. Three bodies of evidence there bear on the question: the shoreline erratics, the Fremington clay, and a handful of claimed high-level sites, of which the Ramson Cliff boulder is the last and the most cited.

The shoreline band

The Saunton–Croyde erratics, Madgett & Inglis (1987), plotted from their grid references

Far-travelled boulders have been reported at the foot of the Saunton cliffs since 1837. Madgett & Inglis (1987) catalogued 37 in the Saunton–Croyde area (listed with grid references in the North Devon erratics master catalogue). Thirty-six of them lie on the foreshore, the raised shore platform or the raised beach, all below about 30 m OD. Every erratic reported up to 1969 lay at the base of the cliffs. The largest is the granulite gneiss near Baggy House at Croyde known as the '50-tonner' (No. 2, 420 × 220 × 200+ cm, first recorded by Hughes in 1887), resting on the planed shore platform; its weight "has been estimated to be 50 tonnes" (Bennett et al. 2024, p. 91).

The '50-tonner' granulite gneiss erratic at Croyde. Archive photograph.

These boulders are genuinely far-travelled and they matter. Their distribution is the evidence. Stephens (1966) pointed out that the largest are confined to a narrow coastal band within reach of storm waves: a selective distribution that is hard to explain by an ice sheet burying the ground, and easy to explain by boulders grounded from floating ice at a former shoreline. Scourse et al. (2024) have since supplied a dated mechanism. Early in the last cold stage (Marine Isotope Stages 4 and 3), ice-loaded crust held relative sea level high while calving ice margins still existed offshore, so floating ice could raft material onto the southern shore platforms. Bennett et al. (2024, p. 91) set out the same alternative, that the platform erratics "were delivered by icebergs calved from glacier ice farther north", and conclude that "both modes of transport (ice-rafting and glacial transport)" may have been involved in the South-West. The shoreline band is the signature of ice that reached the coast, not of ice that climbed it. The argument is set out more fully in Two boulders fewer and Thinking three dimensional.

Floating ice grounding on the shore platform at a high relative sea level. Diagram, not to scale, after Scourse et al. (2024).

The Fremington clay

Boreholes along the Higher Gorse–Roundswell line. Red: lake clay; gold: uncertain; grey: head on the ridge. From BGS borehole logs.

The red potter's clay of Fremington, near Barnstaple, was described as boulder clay by Maw in 1864 and for a century was read as till from an Irish Sea ice sheet. Bennett et al. (2024, p. 87) still call these deposits "the only widely (though not universally) accepted evidence that glacier ice ever reached the peninsula". The borehole record points elsewhere. The Brannam campaign logs (BGS SS53SW62–79) and later holes confirm fine lake clay only at low levels: its base and the underlying gravel lie at about 15–28 m OD, the highest confirmed clay tops at 31.7–32.8 m OD, so no higher than about 33 m, and there is none south of the Hele–Bickington ridge. On the ridge itself, at 38–40 m OD, the clayey material is head, not lake clay. That fits the lake surface of about 30 m OD that Edmonds inferred, as reported by Bennett et al. (2024, p. 88). The clay records a modest lake ponded in the Taw–Torridge estuary behind an ice and outwash dam at the coast, not a till sheet laid by grounded ice overriding Devon to 80–90 m. The boreholes are mapped in the Fremington Clay gazetteer; the analysis is in New borehole analysis sharply constrains the Fremington Clay and Caution in attributing the Fremington Clay Series to Irish Sea glaciation.

The high-level claims, checked

The heights below are those given by the proponent of glacial transport in his own table of erratics on or near the coasts of Devon and Somerset. Each was checked against the published record in The myth of Bristol Channel high-level glacial erratics and the fuller critical analysis.

Site	Claimed height	Finding
Lundy	138 m	Local Lundy granite moved about on the island, not far-travelled erratics (Rolfe et al. 2014). Carr reads them as residual boulders from two-stage weathering rather than glacially transported.
Shebbear (Devil's Stone)	150 m	A sarsen, a local silcrete on or near its parent duricrust: not a travelled stone (The Shebbear erratic sarsen).
Ilfracombe–Berrynarbour plateau	150–175 m	Rests on a single sentence in Campbell et al. (1998, p. 202) citing "erratic material"; no erratic boulder is recorded.
Court Hill	68 m	No relevant erratic boulders in the GCR site account.
Nightingale Valley / Portishead Down	85 m	No relevant erratic boulders in the GCR site account.
Westonzoyland; Kenn	10 m; 7 m	Within or near tidal range: not high-level.
Ramson Cliff, Baggy Point	80 m	See below.

Ramson Cliff: the emplacement problem

The Ramson Cliff erratic beside the coast path, 2025. Photo: T. Daw

The Ramson Cliff erratic is a 378 kg block of altered epidiorite (105 × 55 × 38 cm; Madgett & Inglis 1987, No. 8) now lying beside the coast path at about 80 m OD on Baggy Point. It had been treated as decisive. Bennett et al. (2024, p. 91) wrote that "an isolated block of epidiorite was found at about 80 m OD on Baggy Point promontory [SS 4356 4070] by Madgett and Madgett (1974) which can only have been emplaced by an ice sheet." They qualified it at once: "Whilst this implies ice-sheet transport, it is important to consider the role of tectonic uplift of the region early in the Pleistocene." It has also been cited in support of glacial transport of the bluestones (John 2024).

The question is how the boulder came to be where it was found. Daw, Ixer & Madgett (2026) went back to the original thin section, the archive and the correspondence:

• It was first recorded in 1969, standing upright in the middle of a pasture field on the crest of Baggy Point. It does not appear on earlier maps or aerial photographs.
• In the early 1970s the field was ploughed; the boulder was knocked over and then dragged to the field edge, where it lies now.
• It is angular and rough-surfaced, with none of the abrasion of the shoreline boulders.
• It is the only claimed erratic on the south shore of the Bristol Channel above about 30 m OD, with no supporting deposits, striae or erratics at intermediate heights.

Ramson Cliff erratic, thin section. Madgett & Madgett.

The petrography adds to the emplacement problem. A second thin section, cut from the original hand specimen and described by Rob Ixer in September 2026, confirms the published description. The rock is a highly altered ophitic microgabbro with relict clinopyroxene, no olivine and no quartz; the secondary minerals are brown-green hornblende and later colourless-to-green actinolite, with minor chlorite, epidote and clinozoisite. That assemblage matches the outer aureole of the Dartmoor granite and is consistent with Cornubian contact metamorphism. It does not match the Welsh Ordovician metadolerites on the Irish Sea ice route. A Scottish source cannot be excluded on the amphibole evidence alone.

Irish Sea ice came from the north. Dartmoor lies inland, to the south. A Cornubian source does not prove that people moved the stone, but it makes a lone high-level glacial drop even less likely. An angular block of probably local greenstone, standing upright, unworn, undocumented before 1969 and alone at its height is better read as a manuport, perhaps a standing stone, than as proof of an ice sheet 80 m above the sea.

Statistically it is also an outlier. Of 49 recorded erratic heights in the area, about 86% lie between 5 and 25 m OD; the 80 m value is flagged by the interquartile-range test, the z-score (z = 5.92), Grubbs' test and Dixon's Q test.

What is left

With Ramson Cliff and Shebbear set aside, there is no demonstrated far-travelled boulder above the coastal zone of North Devon, and the claimed high-level sites further east do not survive inspection either. Every proven far-travelled boulder south of the Channel sits at or near the shore. Irish Sea ice reached the coast; nothing shows that it climbed inland, let alone that it went on to Salisbury Plain.

Caveats. This is the better-supported position, not an agreed one. Bennett et al. (2024, p. 91) had previously read the Ramson Cliff boulder as glacial, though with the uplift caveat noted above; Daw, Ixer & Madgett (2026) was written in response. Croot et al. (1996; reviewed by Bennett et al. 2024, p. 88) concluded that the Fremington Clay Series, though probably glaciolacustrine, was overridden by glacier ice. Bennett et al. themselves allow that the Fremington till and gravels may have been deposited near the ice limit "directly or indirectly (i.e., as ice-rafted debris)" (p. 87). Low-level grounded ice reaching about the present coastline remains possible for North Devon, and local glaciation in Devon is not challenged. What it removes is the evidence that was said to require thick ice high on the land.

Notes on the film. The coastline on the maps is drawn from ONS administrative boundaries (Open Government Licence). The red dots are Madgett & Inglis (1987) Nos 1–7 and 9–37, plotted from the catalogue grid references. Claimed sites are plotted from published grid references where they exist (Court Hill ST 473 723, Nightingale Valley ST 450 752, the Devil's Stone SS 4388 0925, Ramson Cliff SS 4356 4070); Lundy and the Ilfracombe plateau are approximate. The Fremington section is redrawn from the borehole data in the Fremington Clay gazetteer. The Croyde photograph is an archive image; the thin section is Madgett & Madgett's. Ramson Cliff and bluestone photographs: T. Daw. Music: original.

Related: A review of the Ramson Cliff erratic · Stonehenge glacial transport theory takes another major hit · Outwash fan-heads, composite dams, and the Fremington lake level · The tangible evidence from the Fremington clays · The demise of the glacial transport theory

Sources

• Bennett, J.A., Cullingford, R.A., Gibbard, P.L., Hughes, P.D. & Murton, J.B. (2024). The Quaternary geology of Devon. Proceedings of the Ussher Society 15, 84–130.
• Campbell, S., Hunt, C.O., Scourse, J.D., Keen, D.H. & Stephens, N. (1998). Quaternary of South-West England. Geological Conservation Review Series 14. Chapman & Hall / JNCC. Chapter 7 (PDF)
• Carr, S. Landscape evolution of Lundy. University of Cumbria repository
• Croot, D.G., Gilbert, A., Griffiths, J. & van der Meer, J.J.M. (1996). The character, age and depositional environments of the Fremington Clay Series, North Devon. Quaternary Newsletter 80, 1–15.
• Daw, T., Ixer, R. & Madgett, P. (2026). A review of the Ramson Cliff erratic: evidence of high-level ice flow? Quaternary Newsletter 167, 13–19. doi:10.64926/qn.20517
• Daw, T. (2024). The myth of Bristol Channel high-level glacial erratics. sarsen.org, 16 December 2024.
• Daw, T. (2025). Critical analysis of claims regarding high-level glacial erratics in the Bristol Channel and the implication for the glacial transport theory of Stonehenge bluestones. Academia.edu.
• Daw, T. (2026). New borehole analysis sharply constrains the Fremington Clay. sarsen.org, 29 April 2026.
• Daw, T. (2026). North Devon glacial erratics: a master catalogue. sarsen.org, April 2026.
• Daw, T. (2026). Thinking three dimensional. sarsen.org, 14 May 2026.
• Daw, T. (2026). Two boulders fewer: North Devon's erratics now point to ice rafting, not override. sarsen.org, 31 May 2026.
• Daw, T. (2026). Ramson Cliff erratic: a second thin section still points Cornubian, not glacial (petrography by R. Ixer). sarsen.org, 21 September 2026.
• Daw, T. Fremington Clay gazetteer (boreholes, outlines and sections; CC BY-SA 4.0).
• John, B. (2024). An igneous erratic at Limeslade, Gower, and the glaciation of the Bristol Channel. Quaternary Newsletter 162; ResearchGate abstract: publication 381775577.
• Madgett, P. & Madgett, R. (1974). High level erratic on Baggy Point. Quaternary Newsletter 14, 1–2.
• Madgett, P.A. & Inglis, A.E. (1987). A re-appraisal of the erratic suite of the Saunton and Croyde areas, North Devon. Transactions of the Devonshire Association 119, 135–144. PDF
• Maw, G. (1864). On a supposed deposit of boulder-clay in North Devon. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 20, 445–451.
• Rolfe, C.J., Hughes, P.D. & Brown, A.G. (2014). Timing of the maximum extent of Late Pleistocene glaciation in NW Europe: evidence from Lundy. Journal of the Lundy Field Society 4, 7–18. PDF
• Scourse, J.D. et al. (2024). The timing and magnitude of the British–Irish Ice Sheet between Marine Isotope Stages 5d and 2: implications for glacio-isostatic adjustment, high relative sea levels and 'giant erratic' emplacement. Journal of Quaternary Science. doi:10.1002/jqs.3611
• Stephens, N. (1966). Some Pleistocene deposits in North Devon. Biuletyn Peryglacjalny 15, 103–114.

Stonehenge Landscape Flyover

 Fly over the Stonehenge landscape, and watch the sun rise in 2500 BC

I've put a new tool online: a 3D flyover of the Stonehenge landscape, not just Stonehenge but also Woodhenge and the new Bulford post alignment. It runs in your web browser, there's nothing to install.

https://timdaw37.github.io/stonehenge-landscape-flyover/

The ground is built from Environment Agency lidar, with Ordnance Survey terrain for the distant hills and the rivers. On it sit the monuments from Historic England's mapping. Stonehenge has its stones on their surveyed positions, Woodhenge has its post rings from Maud Cunnington's 1929 plan, and there's the newly found pair of posts at Bulford. A period slider lets you strip the landscape back from the Early Bronze Age to the Mesolithic and watch it fill up again.

You can fly with the mouse, keyboard or the touch pad in the bottom right corner, which also works on phones and tablets. Double-click anywhere to fly there, or press P for a plan view.

The part I find most useful is the alignment check. Choose a site (Stonehenge, Woodhenge or the Bulford post axis), then an event such as midsummer sunrise, midwinter sunset or a lunar standstill, and pick first gleam, half disc or full disc. It works out where and when the sun or moon clears the real skyline, as seen from that spot, for 2500 BC or any year you choose. It then puts you there, looking at it. A Details button gives the full workings: the true azimuth, the time, and the horizon that was used.

Everything behind the site is open on GitHub, so anyone can take it and build on it:

https://github.com/TimDaw37/stonehenge-landscape-flyover

It's shared under a Creative Commons licence (CC BY-SA 4.0). Use it, change it, and add your own sites or ideas, as long as you credit where it came from and share your version in the same way. 

It's still a work in progress. If you spot anything wrong, from a misplaced monument to a sunrise that looks off, please let me know in the comments.

Historic England’s Vanishing Archive

Historic England’s photos didn’t vanish. SmartFrame did. Then they broke their own links.

Not just the aerials. The lot.

Historic England still holds the negatives, the prints and the scans. What the public lost, in early September, is the ability to look at them. The official notice, last updated 25 September 2026, is admirably blunt:

“This is because the third-party service that we use to display Archive images on our website has ceased trading and entered administration.”

The 11 September version named the damage:

“This means that images are not currently available across Archive records and the Aerial Photo Explorer. Images of England images are also not available on the National Heritage List for England.”

Ground shots, architectural stills, catalogue images, aerials, and the old Images of England pictures on list entries. All of it.

The third party, named by Michael Pritchard on British Photographic History, is SmartFrame Technologies Limited. Henry Page and Shaun Walker of Mercer & Hole were appointed administrators on 26 August 2026. BusinessCloud reports assets of about £2.3m, cash of £182k, liabilities of £1.7m, and a firm that “failed to secure further funding.”

SmartFrame did not store the Archive. It streamed it: zoom, captions, right-click protection, screenshot blocking, anti-scrape. A public body wrapped a national collection in a start-up’s DRM. When the start-up died, the pictures went with it.

Confirmed down, because HE said so:

• images on Archive records
• the Aerial Photo Explorer
• Images of England photographs on the National Heritage List

Not named in the photo notice: England’s Places; list descriptions; the Swindon search room; copy orders. The early Aerofilms set is still on Britain from Above.

HE first promised previews “in several weeks.” The 25 September update is cooler:

“We are hopeful that smaller preview images will be available on the website by 2 October… 400 x 400px image thumbnails… a longer-term solution… is likely to take many months to implement.”

And, for listed-building photos on the List:

“Images of England images on the National Heritage List for England are not being replaced at this time.”

Please do not email the Archive team. The page says so. Visit, or order a copy.

In 2022 SmartFrame called Historic England “a great example” of its interactive frames. Critics noted the same wrapper was stopping people saving RAF verticals whose Crown copyright had already expired. HE later said, on X, that it had spent £65,830 net on the licence from 2020/21 to 2023/24, putting over a million images behind it, and that it was “not an income generation tool.” In 2024 there was another £41k tender. Call it a little over £100,000 to stop people saving pictures a public body was already putting online.

The comparison is the London galleries. Douglas McCarthy’s FOI figures show the National Gallery Picture Library paying a £100,000 internal fee to exist, then posting net losses of £37,575 and £47,615 in two of the last three reported years. Andrea Wallace’s 2022 UKRI report was blunter: licensing images of public-domain works “does not appear to be a present or future revenue scheme with potential for growth, and is actually a financial burden on the GLAM sector.” Tate, which also bought SmartFrame in 2022 for Tate Images, at least has living artists to clear. Historic England was spending six figures to wrap photographs the taxpayer had already paid for. Then the wrapper died, and the public cannot see them at all.

CEO Rob Sewell wrote that SmartFrame “had all the hallmarks of a global disruptor” and was “seeking to restore industry value to the photography market.” It signed football clubs and picture agencies. It did not sign a plan B for a statutory archive.

Then they did it again to the words.   

UPDATE 29 Sept 2026 - this problem seems to have been fixed

On 16 September 2026 Historic England switched on a new Heritage Gateway and killed the old one. For twenty years the stable record URL was:

https://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=219528&resourceID=19191

That path is dead. No redirect to the record. heritagegateway.org.uk dumps you on a search box. PastScape hob.aspx?hob_id= went the same way years ago and now has nowhere to land.

Volunteer sites took the hit first: Megalithic Portal, Megalithomania, county walk pages, teaching lists — anything that treated a Gateway UID as a permalink. Annoying. Expected, if you hitch your wagon to someone else’s CMS.

Then look at HE’s own map.

The Aerial Archaeology Mapping Explorer still draws. The banks and ditches are on the Open Data Hub. What died is the click. Every grey monument pop-up was supposed to open the full record. HE baked the old Gateway URLs into the GIS. The published schema says so, in words a child could read:

• HE_URL1 to HE_URL5 — “URL link to the relevant Historic England record in Heritage Gateway”
• HER_LINK_1 to HER_LINK_25 — the same for the local HER
• HER_PREF_REF — “alternative HER UID that is used to create the Heritage Gateway URL”

Thousands of those strings are sitting in a national dataset HE still publishes. The Mapping Explorer landing page still tells you a click “will take you to the Heritage Gateway” and still points at heritagegateway.org.uk/gateway. They relaunched the catalogue and left their own map wired to the corpse. Not a third party this time. Not SmartFrame. Them.

A public body spent six figures locking pictures, then cancelled the only stable identifier the rest of the web — and its own aerial mapping tool — had been told to use. HIAS Principle 5 was “a national overview should continue to be delivered online through the Heritage Gateway.” Principle 6 was that knowledge “should not be at risk of loss, fragmentation… or system obsolescence.” They managed both in a fortnight.

Let the photographs free. Out of copyright: a JPEG. Need a tidy file for print: charge for the file, not for the looking. And if you change a national URL scheme, redirect the old ones. A statutory archive is not a Premier League still, and a mapping explorer with thousands of dead links on the organisation’s own website is not a launch.